When national debt grows too large, an economy enters "fiscal dominance." The central bank loses its ability to manage the economy, as raising rates causes hyperinflation to cover debt payments while lowering them creates massive asset bubbles, leaving no good options.

To escape a debt crisis without total collapse, a nation must delicately balance four levers: austerity (spending less), debt restructuring, controlled money printing, and wealth redistribution. According to investor Ray Dalio, most countries fail to find this balance, resulting in an "ugly deleveraging" and societal chaos.

According to hedge fund manager Ray Dalio, the only historical path out of a terminal national debt cycle is a "beautiful deleveraging." This requires a painful but precisely balanced mix of austerity, debt forgiveness, wealth taxes, and printing money to avoid societal collapse.

Governments with massive debt cannot afford to keep interest rates high, as refinancing becomes prohibitively expensive. This forces central banks to lower rates and print money, even when it fuels asset bubbles. The only exits are an unprecedented productivity boom (like from AI) or a devastating economic collapse.

The Fed's tool of raising interest rates is designed to slow bank lending. However, when inflation is driven by massive government deficits, this tool backfires. Higher rates increase the government's interest payments, forcing it to cover a larger deficit, which can lead to more money printing—the root cause of the inflation in the first place.

When a government's deficit spending forces it to borrow new money simply to cover the interest on existing debt, it enters a self-perpetuating "debt death spiral." This weakens the nation's financial position until it either defaults or is forced to make brutal, unpopular cuts, risking internal turmoil.

Since WWII, governments have consistently chosen to print money to bail out over-leveraged actors rather than raise taxes or allow failure. This long-term policy has systematically devalued currency and concentrated wealth, creating today's deep economic divide.

The core problem for the middle class is a direct chain reaction: national debt leads to money printing (inflation), which forces people to own assets to preserve wealth. Since only 10% of Americans own 93% of assets, the rest are left behind with devalued cash and stagnant wages.

In periods of 'fiscal dominance,' where government debt and deficits are high, a central bank's independence inevitably erodes. Its primary function shifts from controlling inflation to ensuring the government can finance its spending, often through financial repression like yield curve control.