The Reformation enabled the Enlightenment not because its doctrine was inherently progressive—early Protestantism was often fundamentalist—but because it broke the Catholic Church's intellectual monopoly. This fracture created a marketplace of ideas where different philosophies could compete, and forced societies to find ways to coexist with disagreement.
Unlike a unified China, which could halt nationwide projects like shipbuilding on a whim, Europe's division into competing kingdoms created a resilient ecosystem for progress. If one nation abandoned an idea or technology, another could pick it up, fostering continuous development driven by interstate competition.
Contrary to its 'Age of Reason' moniker, the Enlightenment's key advance was acknowledging human fallibility. This humility challenged the absolute certainty of earlier philosophies which used pure reason to justify dogma like geocentrism. Accepting the limits of reason opened the door to empirical evidence and intellectual dissent.
The Enlightenment introduced a linear concept of progress, replacing cyclical views of history. While this spurred scientific and social advancement, it also had a dark side. It was used to judge other cultures, providing a justification for seizing land from Indigenous peoples on the basis that they were not 'using' it productively according to European standards of progress.
Hobbes's theory of government was revolutionary because it was entirely secular. He argued for obeying a sovereign not because of divine right, but to avoid the violent anarchy of a 'state of nature.' This based political legitimacy in practical, first-principles reasoning rather than theology, making him a controversial and foundational figure for modern political thought.
Before 'The Wealth of Nations', Adam Smith wrote 'The Theory of Moral Sentiments'. His economic ideas were an extension of his psychological theory that morality and commerce stem from 'sympathy'—the ability to understand others' needs and wants. Free trade works because it's based on this mutual understanding, not centrally dictated rules.
The Enlightenment offered a nuanced view of human nature, rejecting both the religious doctrine of inherent sinfulness and Rousseau's idea of a pure 'noble savage' corrupted by society. Instead, thinkers like Adam Smith proposed that humans are fallible but can be improved and socialized through societal living, a foundational concept for modern liberalism.